Mountaintop Removal Mining in the Appalachian Mountains

     Hobet 21 Mine of West Virginia is a Mountaintop Removal Mine. Being mined for coal, the mountain primarily produces high-grade coal, a low-sulfur bituminous which burns with a cleaner, hotter efficiency in electric power plants. Taxes from the bituminous coal help fuel a large part of West Virginia’s economy. (National Geographic)

According to the Smithsonian, since the coal shaft mining processes in the area ended in the 1950s, the coal projects in West Virginia have since moved to become a project of “demolishing mountains instead of drilling into them.” This is the process/method known as mountaintop removal mining. (Smithsonian.com)

In this process, the disposal of overburden into adjacent valleys is called “valley fills.” Valley fills occur in steep terrain where there are limited disposal alternative. Typically these mountaintop removal mines occurred in Kentucky, Virginia, West Virginia, and Tennessee. (Epa.gov)

(NWF)

In the method of the mountaintop removal mining there are five basic steps.

Layers of rock and dirt above the coal, called overburden, are removed.

Next, the upper seams of coal are removed with spoils placed in an adjacent valley.

Draglines excavate lower layers of coal with spoils placed in spoil piles.

Drag lines are huge machines us, some the size of an entire city block, able to scoop up to 100 times in a single load.

Then, re-grading begins as the coal excavation continues.

Finally, once the coal removal is complete, final re-grading takes place and the area is re-vegetated.

These five steps for provided by the EPA.

While coal is in high demand in the United States, the US Department of Energy estimated that there was a staggering 28.5 billion tons of this high-quality coal in the Appalachia region in 1998. (Epa.gov)By restricting mountaintop mining to small watersheds, this could potentially substantially impact the amount of extraction that takes place in these mountaintop removal mines. (Epa.gov)

Some of the coal companies in the region have been using explosives to blast as much as 800-1,000 feet off of the mountaintops. This is meant to reach deep into the mountain to reach some of the thin seams of coal. (Earthjustice.org)

The Environmental Protection Agency projected that by 2012, the two decades of mountaintop removal mining in the region will have destroyed/degraded 11.5% of the forests in Kentucky, Virginia, West Virginia, and Tennessee. This equals altogether, an area larger than that of the state of Delaware. The overburden that is dumped into the valleys has buried 1,000+ miles of stream. (Smithsonian.com)

In a study done by National Geographic on the mountaintop removal mining in West Virginia, the results showed that as well as water pollution in the valley below the mountaintop removal mining, there is serious air pollution which causes dangerous health issues to the residents of the towns in the valleys. (National Geographic)

The Hobet 21 Mine produces approximately one ton of coal for every 16 tons of terrain that is displaced. (Smithsonian.com)

As far as reclamation of the mountaintop removal mines in the Appalachian region goes, as of 2010, 89.3% of these sites held no form of verifiable post-mining economic reclamation excluding forestry and pasture, while only 6.3% of the total number of site yielded some form of verifiable post mining economic development. These results only examined 410 mountaintop removal sites in the Appalachian region, while 90 other of these locations were excluded from the study due to being active with ongoing mining activity. The study also shows that roughly 1.2 million acres of the Mountain in the Appalachian Mountains have been the product of mountaintop removal mining. (Nrdc.org)

(Toxic Water)

Environmental laws that are in existence to help protect the environment and regulate the mining in the area include (Auoralights.org):

o   Clean Water Act of 1972

§  Is a safeguard against the dumping of waste and pollutants into waterways.

o   Valley Fill or 404 permits

§  A 404 permits must be obtained in order for mining which calls for valley fills.

§  This is an exemption to subsection 404 of the Clean Water Act, which allows for the issuing of variances to fill in an intermittent or perennial street.

·      An intermittent stream of water during wet portions of the year in the perennial stream holds water throughout the year.

o   Surface mining control and reclamation act

§  This requires that “all surface coal mining operations backfill, compact… and grade in order to restore the approximate original contour of the land with all high walls, spoil piles and depressions eliminated.”

·      It is not uncommon to be granted exemption from this.

o   Mining safety and health administration permit

§  Oversees the regulatory structure of the mines.

Mountaintop Removal Mines Prezi

Works Cited

Gormley, Neil. "The Poverty of Mountaintop Removal Mining." Earthjustice. N.p., 03 Jan. 2013. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://earthjustice.org/blog/2013-january/the-poverty-of-mountaintop-removal-mining>.

Lexy. "Bucyrus Erie 1570-W Walking Dragline (Patriot Coal Corp. - Hobet 21 Surface Mine) "Big John"" Panoramio. Google Maps, 7 Oct. 2010. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://www.panoramio.com/photo/41841203>.

Lindsey, Rebecca. "Coal Controversy In Appalachia : Feature Articles." Coal Controversy In Appalachia : Feature Articles. NASA, 21 Dec. 2007. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. <http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/MountaintopRemoval/>.

McQuaid, John. "Mining the Mountains." Smithsonian. Smithsonian, Jan. 2009. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://www.smithsonianmag.com/ecocenter-energy/mining-the-mountains-130454620/?no-ist=&no-list=&page=1>.

"Mid-Atlantic Mountaintop Mining | US EPA." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://www.epa.gov/region03/mtntop/>.

Mitchell, John G. "When Mountains Move." Mountaintop Removal Article, Coal Mining Information, Coal Industry Facts. National Geographic, Mar. 2006. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/earth/surface-of-the-earth/when-mountains-move.html>.

"Mountaintop Mine Looms Over House." Hobet 21 Coal Mine Aerial. N.p., n.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://olsonfarlow.photoshelter.com/image/I000029Xc7YTq3H8>.

Perks, Rob. "Environmental News: Media Center." NRDC: Press Release. National Resources Defense Council, 17 May 2010. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://www.nrdc.org/media/2010/100517.asp>.

Stadler, Felice. "We Have a Climate Problem-and the U.S. EPA Has a Solution!" Wildlife Promise We Have a Climate Problemand the US EPA Has a Solution Comments. National Wildlife Federation, 20 Sept. 2013. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://blog.nwf.org/2013/09/we-have-a-climate-problem-and-the-us-epa-has-a-solution/>.

"What Is Mountaintop Removal?" Legislation, Permits, Regulations ::: Journey Up Coal River. Aurora Lights, n.d. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://auroralights.org/map_project/theme.php?theme=mtr&article=20>.

"What Is Mountaintop Removal Mining?" Earthjustice. N.p., 04 June 2010. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://earthjustice.org/features/campaigns/what-is-mountaintop-removal-mining>.

Zielinski, Sarah. "New Guidelines for Mountaintop Coal Mining." Smithsonian.com. Smithsonian, 5 Apr. 2010. Web. 11 Mar. 2015. <http://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/new-guidelines-for-mountaintop-coal-mining-26399004/?no-ist=>.

Biodiversity Hotspots: Brazil's Cerrado

         A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region that is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity and is threatened with destruction. The biodiversity hotspot that I chose is Brazil's Cerrado. Though Brazil's Cerrado is not known as well as the Amazon, it takes up approximately 20% of Brazil. Brazil's Cerrado occupies Brazil's central area.
         Due to the fact that the Cerrado is a savanna, the Cerrado is a large grassland. It does not contain as wide a variety of biodiversity as the Amazon rainforest, though it does contain a wide variety of plant and animal species, including many endangered and critically endangered species. These species include, but are not limited to, the maned wolf (see figure 1), the giant armadillo, and the critically endangered Spix's macaw.

Figure 1(WWF) The endangered Maned Wolf.

        As far as average net primary productivity is concerned, the savanna type ecosystem falls about in the middle of the chart with approximately 3,200 kilocalories of energy produced per square meter per year. The Cerrado has enough need for energy that the net primary productivity is larger than the Arctic tundra's need for energy, but there is not so much of a need as what the tropical rainforest needs, therefore, the Cerrado falls right in the middle on the scale for net primary productivity in order to produce just enough energy to sustain Brazil's Cerrado.

Brazil's Cerrado Food Web

           The Cerrado home of a lot of biodiversity. There is an estimated 10,000 plant  species living in the Cerrado, 4,400 of which are considered endemic. (Endemic means that the species lives uniquely in the Cerrado.) 600 regularly occurring bird species migrate to and from the Cerrado, 20 of which are endemic. With 200 species of mammals in the Cerrado, 14 of those species are endemic. 30 of the 220 reptilian species in the Cerrado are endemic. Finally, nearly 13% of amphibians in the Cerrado are endemic. As this shows, species of Brazil's Cerrado allow for a very significant variety of biological diversity. 

         Starting in the 1970s, the Cerrado became the new frontier for agricultural production. This led to an increase of population and trade, mainly soy and corn. Approximately 78.7% of the Cerrado's land has been converted for human use and/or pasture and coal production. Only 21.3% of the indigenous vegetation remains today.  

World Wildlife Foundation

         Some work that the World Wildlife Foundation is using to conserve Brazil's Cerrado includes community-focused ecotourism, helping miners train and work as tour guides, and teachers in freshwater and environmental education. The WWF also sponsors the Round Table on Responsible Soy in the Cerrado, which helps to promote environmentally responsible production and usage of soy.

          With Brazil's Cerrado being on the line, the would is helping to build this savanna back up to its fullest potential. With the help of local and international people, the Cerrado will be the home of many no longer endangered, but thriving endemic species.

References

"Biodiversity Hotspot." Science Daily. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. <http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Farticles%2Fb%2Fbiodiversity_hotspot.htm>.

"Biodiversity Hotspots for Conservation Priorities." (2000): n. pag. Web.

"Biological Diversity in the Cerrado." The Encyclopedia of the Earth. Ed. J. Emmett Duffy. Conservation International, 3 Nov. 2011. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. <http%3A%2F%2Fwww.eoearth.org%2Fview%2Farticle%2F150638%2F>.

"The Cerrado: Savanna in Brazil." E B E R B a C H B L O G. N.p., 16 Apr. 2014. Web. 8 Dec. 2014. <http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-cR9rdkVFa04/U1CuntSJWfI/AAAAAAAABsU/qJIUy4MEKHU/s1600/Cerrado+Food+Web.PNG>.

"Cerrado, the Brazilian Savanna." WWF -. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Dec. 2014. <http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/cerrado/>.

Learning About Food Webs and Energy Pyramids Summary

              Food webs are, by definition, consisting of all food chains in a single ecosystem. A food chain is a group of organisms linked in order of the food they eat. The organisms in these food webs are separated into different trophic levels. A trophic level is one of three positions on the food chain including producers, consumers, and decomposers. Producers are also known as autotrophs. They make their own food and do not need to depend on any other organisms for nutrients to survive. Producers use photosynthesis to provide themselves with the appropriate nutrients. Examples of producers are seaweed and some types of bacteria. The next level is the primary consumer level. Primary consumers are herbivores, which means that primary consumers eat plants, algae, and other producers. A mouse is considered a primary consumer. Next, there are secondary consumers. Secondary consumers are carnivores, which means that they eat herbivores. An example of a secondary consumer would be a snake that would eat a mouse. Further up the ladder, there are the tertiary consumers. Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers. Examples of tertiary consumers include owls or eagles that would eat the snake (secondary consumer) that ate the mouse (primary consumer). Finally, there are the decomposers and detritivores. Decomposers eat organic wastes and turn them into inorganic materials, such as nutrient-rich soil. Detritivores, on the other hand, are organisms that eat nonliving plant and animal remains. (Dunn)

              In this activity, I learned a lot about the food webs and energy pyramids in an aquatic ecosystem. We were charged with placing the organisms that we had collected in our cards into the proper order based on the trophic levels that the organisms are placed in. My group's ecosystem was an aquatic ecosystem. The way that my group organized our web was (from bottom to top) producers, primary consumers, secondary consumers, tertiary consumers, and then, decomposers. One example for each of these levels would be plankton for primary consumers. For secondary consumers, we have the example of small fish. Tertiary consumer of our food web would be the shark. At the top, for our decomposer, we have the sea urchin.
              The biome that my group's food web represents is the aquatic biome. A biome is an area of the planet that can be classified according to the plants and animals that live in it. (Dunn) We know that the biome of our food web is the aquatic (or marine) biome because the animals and plants in our food web are those that we would find in the oceans of Earth. In conclusion, the food web that my group was assigned, was the aquatic biome food web.

Dunn, Margery G. (Editor). (1989, 1993). "Exploring Your World: The Adventure of Geography." Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society.

Ecological Footprint Summary

The book definition of Ecological Footprint is "the amount of biologically productive land and water needed to supply a population with the renewable resources it uses and to absorb or dispose of the wastes from such resource use; it is a measure of the average environmental impact of populations in different countries and areas."
During the Ecological Footprint activity, I learned a lot about the ecological footprint of the earth and of myself. Through participating in the Footprint Calculator activity, I found that in order to sustain my lifestyle, if everyone else on the planet lived like I do, we would need to have eight planet earths to be sustainable. As only one person, I need 37.5 global hectares to be sustainable. That is 47.3 tons of carbon dioxide! (A global hectare is a productivity weighted area used to report both the biocapacity of the earth, and the demand on biocapacity.)
Even though these were my findings during the Ecological Footprint activity, they may not have been 100% accurate, but I cannot imagine my results coming back much differently had I changed the date. In order for me to live a more sustainable lifestyle, I must change the way I live, drastically.

References

Miller, G. Tyler. Living in the Environment: Principles, Connections and Solutions. South Melbourne Etc.: Thomson Learning, 2004. Print.

"Glossary." Footprint Network. N.p., 12 Oct. 2012. Web. 08 Sept. 2014. <http://www.footprintnetwork.org/en/index.php/GFN/page/glossary/#globalhectare>.